Evaluation of Teacher Efficacy

by Dr. Michael S. Miller

Bandura (1997) presented self-efficacy as a mechanism of behavioral change and self-regulation in his social cognitive theory. Defined as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (p. 3), Bandura (1997) proposed that efficacy beliefs were powerful predictors of behavior because they were ultimately self-referent in nature and directed toward specific tasks.

The predictive power of efficacy has generally been borne out in research, especially when efficacy beliefs are measured concerning specific tasks.  It is necessary, therefore, to find the optimal level of specificity of the measure, which is in correspondence with the task and the area under evaluation.  In the same vein, Burgoyne (2010) summarizes some properties implied in measuring self-efficacy, which refers to certain tasks or activities.  They are linked to certain areas of operation and are dependent on the context in which the task is given.  It is dependent on both a criterion referring to oneself and compared to performance of others.  A person in the teaching profession is no exception.

Bandura’s teacher self-efficacy scale. Bandura developed his own teacher efficacy scale, which is a 30-item instrument with seven subscales: efficacy to influence decision making, efficacy to influence school resources, instructional efficacy, disciplinary efficacy, efficacy to enlist parental involvement, efficacy to enlist community involvement, and efficacy to create a positive school climate. Each item is measured on a 9-point scale anchored by the following: “nothing, very little, some influence, quite a bit, a great deal” (Bandura, 2001).

Teachers’ sense of efficacy scale (TSES). TSES, previously called the Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale, was developed in a seminar on self-efficacy in teaching and learning at the Ohio State University. The participants of the seminar searched for an instrument, which includes the types of tasks representative of frequent teaching activities. Taking the Bandura teacher efficacy scale as a base, they developed and added new items. They decided to use a 9-point scale as in the Bandura scale. The resulting instrument was investigated in different studies by Tschannen-Moran and her colleagues.

The initial study of the instrument with 52 items was administered to a sample of 224 participants (both pre-service and in-service teachers). Thirty-two of the items were selected as a result of principal-axis factoring with varimax rotation (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001). In the second study, the 32-item version of TSES was investigated with a sample of 70 pre-service and 147 in-service teachers. Tschannen- Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) used principal axis factor extraction again. The rule of an Eigen value greater than one yielded an eight-factor solution, while the scree test suggested a possible two- or three-factor solution. After examining both two- and three- factor solutions, the authors decided to go with the three-factor solution, which better represents the tasks of teaching.  Later, the instrument was reduced to 18 items by removing redundant items and items with low factor loadings. The factor analysis with varimax rotation produced three factors accounting for 51% of the variance. These factors were called as efficacy for student engagement (eight items with an alpha reliability of .82), efficacy for instructional strategies (seven items with an alpha reliability of .81), and efficacy for classroom management (three items with an alpha reliability of .72). A further analysis, using collapsing samples from study 1 and study 2, generated one strong factor with factor loadings ranging from .74 to .84. Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) argued that TSES could be used for assessment of either three domains of efficacy or one generalized efficacy factor.

Bond and Fox (2001) evaluated an 18-item instrument while expressing their concerns about a third factor with only three items. They collected data from 183 in- service teachers, and subjected the data to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).  The CFA approach is different from Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) approach, which used exploratory factor analysis. Their findings supported the factorial validity of TSES but for only “efficacy for student engagement” and “efficacy for instructional strategies” factors. Roberts and Henson (2001) argued that the items of third factor should be removed from the instrument for its further use. In addition, they rejected the one- dimensional model suggested by Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001).

On the other hand, Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) argued that classroom management is a crucial factor for teaching and disagree with the elimination of this factor. They developed new items concerning classroom management by taking Emmer’s teacher efficacy for classroom management scale into consideration. The resultant instrument included 36 items. Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) employed principal-axis factoring with varimax rotation with a sample of 410 pre-service and in-service teachers. A four-factor solution was suggested by using eigenvalues greater than one, whereas three factors were suggested by the scree test. The three-factor solution was consistent with the findings of study 2. Later and as a final step, Tschannen- Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) selected items with higher loadings and developed 12- and 24-item instruments. Analyses of both forms indicated that the TSES, either long or short version, could be accepted as a reliable and valid instrument for assessing the teacher efficacy construct. Both versions supported the three factor model with high subscale reliabilities (ranging from .87 to .91 for the longer version and .81 to .86 for the shorter version).

An integrated model of teacher’s sense of efficacy.  Based on their review of research on teacher efficacy, Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk Hoy, and Hoy (1998) proposed a theoretical model, which attempts to present a comprehensive picture of teacher efficacy by considering the history of advances in teacher efficacy research and suggesting new sources of information.

The primary factor affecting teacher efficacy is believed to be the interpretation of four sources of information proposed by Bandura (1997): verbal persuasion, vicarious experiences, physiological arousal, and mastery experience. However, as consistent with our previous knowledge, efficacy perceptions are accepted as task and context-specific; i.e., teachers show varying levels of sense of efficacy in particular situations or for teaching different subjects. Accordingly, this model considers not only the perceived competence to perform specific behaviors but also the teaching task and its context (concepts are related but not the same as previously identified teacher efficacy dimensions, personal teaching efficacy and general teaching efficacy, respectively). Read Other Section

Dr. Michael Miller is a professor specializing in learning strategies for success for online students, organizational behavior, and educational leadership. Michael has a Bachelor of Science in Education, Master of Science in Instructional Design and Development, an Educational Specialist in Educational Leadership (K-12), and a Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership (Higher Education). His background includes elementary school teaching and administration, mentoring/training new teachers, curriculum development, online course design, and higher education administration. Currently, Michael is conducting research related to teacher preparation, online collaborative learning tools and processes, and effective online teaching practices through student engagement, stimulating intellectual development, and building rapport.  Dr. Miller can be reached at michaelsm47@gmail.com

References

Bandura, A. (2001). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales (Revised). Retrieved from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/banduraguide.html

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Bond, T. G., & Fox, C. M. (2001). Applying the Rasch model: Fundamental measurement in the human sciences. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Burgoyne, J. (2010). Towards the learning company. Management Education & Development, 20(1), 1-8.

Roberts, J. K., & Henson, R. K. (2001). A confirmatory factor analysis of a new measure of teacher efficacy: Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle.

Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805.

Tschannen-Moran, M., Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Hoy, W. K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68(2), 202-248.

Book Review: Learning from the Masters of Venture Capital and Private Equity

Venture capital and private equity are important components to societal investment. The book The Masters of Private Equity and Venture Capital by Robert Finkel delves into the concepts of what makes investment successful. Contrary to common knowledge the money is only one of the components while the factors of the market and the organization itself are equally important. Few want to invest their money in poorly run and sinking ships. 

One of the biggest steps in venture capital success is learning from mistakes. There will be some companies you make significant money off of and there are some that you won’t be so lucky. The key, like most other things in life, are to continue to learn from mistakes. Whether you’re Edison or the Rockefellers the process is the same. 

Investors often find a method to evaluate companies. They don’t just blindly pick some company and start pouring money into a deep hole. They use methods of analysis to ensure that the companies they are interested in meet certain qualities in the market, management, capitalization, potential, and methodology.  Without a proper evaluation it is easy to fall prey to wishful thinking. 

The authors also offer the need to turn research into commerce and foster innovation. Small firms succeed because they offer something unique. Their best changes for success lay in capitalizing on information and knowledge. Without research, innovation, and knowledge they will not be able to navigate the environment. All organizations should be learning organizations. 

Selecting the right CEO and ensuring you have management metrics helps to encourage proper decision making and accountability. When organizations have the right leadership and a methodology for navigating their environment they are more able to improve upon performance. Management metrics ensure that selected executives are actually doing their job. 

The book recommends a couple of analysis that is helpful:

Portfolio valuation: Looking at various components and choosing proper assets it is possible to understand the risks and potential rewards of investing in particular companies.

Waterfall analysis: A method of understanding preferred stock return with liquidation preferences compared to common stock return.

The authors do not discuss the concept of behavioral aspects of organizations. Strong organizations have strong core sense of purpose and exhibit the proper behaviors to succeed. These behaviors are based in inquisitive, collaborative, learning, testing, and civility behaviors that help ensure that the organization moves upward. Without these behavioral metrics to analyze the overall thinking process it is possible a single simple market success cannot be regenerated.

Finkel , R. (2010). The masters of private equity and venture capital. New York: McGraw Hill

Portfolio Analysis and S.W.O.T Analysis from Timothy212

Exploding Your Small Business into the International Marketplace

From the fire into the frying pan is one way to describe entrepreneurs that start out engaging in international marketing. According to Zhou et. al. (2012) such entrepreneurs often excel quickly past their competitors as the organization maintains pliability and learning to match market needs. Despite the overall risks of marking internationally from the beginning, organizations are more likely to grow quickly and obtain greater cash flow. 

Organizations must learn to be competitive. Starts up businesses have a significant learning curve at first but begins to wane over time as they gain skills. When they are connected quickly to the international markets there is more opportunity to find resources that requires greater learning activity. Doing so before the small company becomes structured helps to ensure its pliability in finding new revenue streams and maintains its entrepreneurial activities.

To be successful such firms will need to exploit both foreign market knowledge and networks to create the right kind of internationalization. It primarily impacts the perceptions of decision-makers that will need to focus on finding relevant information and using connections with larger international firms to create market opportunities. It changes the perception from the beginning of an organizations life to a wider world. 

According to learning theory, “what an organization knows at its birth will determine what it searches for, what it experiences, and how it interprets what it encounters” (Huber, 1991, p. 91). It is an issue of perspective gaining and creating the right vantage points to obtain information. This information can then be used to create new ways of solving problems. 

International marketing requires a wider perceptual field. Business must ensure they understand the varying niche markets around the globe, know which ones meet their needs, and understand how to provide communication to customers within that market. The more they understand how to match their marketing to the global perspective the less risk of financial failure they face over time. 

Moving beyond this report we can see that the Internet and the interconnectivity of various groups of people affords opportunities not seen a few decades ago. Products can be marketed, shipped and sold around the globe with less effort than in the past. The Internet is affording opportunities to not only get out the message about products but also to integrate more information through search engines, services, and analysis. Where businesses were once limited to local companies they can now explode onto the international market. 

Zhou, L. et. al. (2012). The effects of early internationalization on performance outcomes in young international ventures: the mediating role of marketing capabilities. Journal of International Marketing, 20 (4). 

Huber, George P. (1991) Organizational Learning: The Contributing Processes and Literatures. Organization Science, 2 (1), 88-115.

How Social Network Channels Influence Job Performance

Do your social networks impact your success? Xiaojung and Vekatesh (2013) discuss research on how important physical and online social networks are to job performance. Direct physical, direct online, and indirect online are sources of information that impact the process of decision-making and connecting to resources. Their research helps identify how online and offline communication channels can work together to enhance job performance.

It is first beneficial to define what a social network is. “A social network is a specific set of linkages among a defined set of persons, with the additional property that the characteristics of these linkages as a whole may be used to interpret the social behavior of the persons involved” (Mitchell, 1969, p. 2). Those within the same social networks often use similar behaviors and vantage points.

Face-to-face communication offers the opportunity for both verbal and non-verbal communication. It is considered a rich content channel that spreads information through time tested historical methods. The advent of online communication affords greater variety of information management that previous methods need physical interaction to accomplish.

Despite its breadth, online communication channels are less value laden than face-to-face communication. Yet this communication channel is being hedged to create greater reach than would be possible with traditional methods. Varying degrees of information can be collected from networks in the online world that moves quickly among members. Over time online channels will become more information laden to mimic face-to-face interaction (i.e. video, music, forums).

The authors found that the use of online and off-line communication does have an impact on job performance. The belief is that information is power and the more one is able to collect and integrate varying channels of information the more likely they can make proper decisions that impact their job. It is recommended that business leaders use both forms of communication for maximum job growth.

The report doesn’t move into this concept, but through channel expansion theory and concepts of information hubs it is possible to put oneself in the center of the information hub and expand upon that information for greater influence. Leaders who desire to become influential should develop as many communication channels as humanly possible and use that information to bring great ideas forward.

Mitchell, J. (1969). “The concept and use of social networks” in social networks in urban situations, J.C. Mitchell (ed), Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, p. 1-50.

Zhang, X. & Venkatesh, V. (2013). Explaining employee job performance: the role of online and offline workplace communication networks.  MIS Quarterly, 37 (3).