Are Native Americans and Europeans Related?

A 24,000-year-old arm bone indicates that Native Americans may be cousins to Eurasians. DNA samples along with current projects to map the DNA of Native Americans have made new discoveries. It was found that the Native Americans share about 18% to 38% with Eurasian and other genomes with East Asians. This may mean that Native Americans are really a mixing of genetics between Eurasians and East Asians that create a distinct identity. 

The scientists originally thought they contaminated the samples and put the tests on hold. A year later, they found the same results. They began to look around the American continent for other examples and came across the 9,000-year-old Paleo-Indian found in Washington. To their amazement this Native had features more European than East Asian. 

It was believed that earlier studies with Eurasian DNA were a result of mixtures with Europeans after settlement and colonization. Now it is possible that such DNA structures are actually deeper and can date back tens of thousands of years. If so, this would mean that Natives have been in the area for a long time and have developed their own ways of life independent of other societies. 

When people view all human life as common, using similar expressions, mannerisms, and processes but with different cultures the idea is no longer farfetched. Other studies that are mapping the mich-DNA are finding similarities in other large groups in other areas indicating that early human development was very interrelated. 

What does this really change for people? Mostly it is about perspective. We often view ourselves as very different but these are cultural differences. At a very deep level, we may all be interrelated and come from similar ancient backgrounds. Over the years, we have learned different ways of surviving within our environments and passed these methods through the generations to create culture.

Mass, et. al. (November 20^th,2013). Upper Palaeolithic Siberian genome reveals dual ancestry of Native Americans.  doi:10.1038/nature12736   Journal

Other Reading: 

Washington Post

Scientific American

Video on the History of Native Americans

Mapping the DNA of American Natives

University of Illinois anthropology professor Ripan Malhi has analyzed DNA samples to try and determine how humans made their way to the Americas 15,000 years ago. They looked closely at mitochondrial genome that comes from mothers and found a stronger connection to the ancient past. The natives of Prince Rupert Island have the same genetic background as their ancestors. The natives of Northern California were complex hunter-gatherers while those of Mexico transitioned to agriculture. 

Two general theories appear to dominate the American migration theories. One is that people moved across an ice shelf from Europe and another is that Asianic people used boats to move down the California coast. No one really knows what happened. Both theories have been challenged at one time or another based upon artifact finding, carbon dating, and anthropology studies. 

The genetic studies are interesting in that they can help connect peoples from the Americas to those in other areas. Most researchers have little evidence that American human life generated from the southern jungles in South America. However, the genetic studies will further clear the hazy theories about where natives really came from or whether they were homegrown. 

Mitochondrial DNA is where energy from food is converted for use in other cells. The Mitochondrial DNA is standalone in the sense that each cell comes with their own DNA unconnected to other DNA in the body. This is one of the reasons why such DNA can be traced back through the mother’s line to ancient people. Scientists are using this DNA to understand the origin of people’s from around the world and previous studies in Europe indicate common migration.

Scienceworld

Guardian

Nature

DNA

The Development of Business Education in History

Cecil Bohanon reviews the themes of business education from 1900 to 1930 to see which issues were resolved at this time in history. The research evaluated curriculum content, professional nature of business and business schools, social responsibility of corporate managers, and the desire to integrate business curriculum. These entry-level business school concepts continue today in a more complex form.

The very first business and commerce colleges started in the 19^th century lead by The Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in 1883. Business communities, who wanted their sons to learn about business with a liberal education, started the very first colleges. To the business community it was a way of formalizing a period of apprenticeship.  At this time in history, many families ran a business to maintain their needs and it was expected their sons would start their own or take over the family business.

Either most of the bright high school students went directly into business or they went to college to learn specific skills. These students did not have much desire to graduate with a degree and simply took the classes that furthered their business interests. College administrators felt that they could improve retention by offering degrees in business. They implemented programs that moved from trade school to formal education.

It took a couple of decades before professors began to feel as though business was a worthwhile subject for study. At the time, a liberal education was seen as the ideal standard of education. The very first business oriented curriculum included economics and sociology as part of their offerings. Economics provided the financial training and sociology offered the human elements training. Commerce was seen as the key course set that moved trade schools to business schools.

Social responsibility eventually made its way into the overall process of business education. Ethics were present before the 1930’s but focused on social responsibility to shareholders. The damaging aspect of not following the law could result in punitive economic actions. Ethics was based in how to make the most money in one’s career regardless of the wider social obligations.

Once colleges were established, the concept of curriculum integration became more important. Students could receive an excellent education in class silos but did not have proper frameworks for integrating these concepts into a more cohesive framework. As the concept of integrate developed so did the practices of relating classes to each other.  Courses that are more general were built on the fundaments of economics, accounting and statistics.

Business colleges have come a long way. In today’s world, a higher level of fundamental, business and liberal education has become common place. Social responsibility has moved beyond making only money to include one’s responsibilities to society. Courses are more technical and include other elements in response to the changing complexity of the business environment. The report does not indicate this concept, but it would seem that the next development of business colleges beyond technological trajectories will be the creation of integrated frameworks for understanding complex environmental factors as well as creative/innovation development methodologies.

Bohanon, C. (2008). Persistent Themes in College of Business. Journal of Education for Business, 83 (4).